Abstract

This paper explores the multifaceted world of professional wrestling, shedding light on its nuanced interplay of scripted narratives, genuine athleticism, and societal influences. While acknowledging the fabricated nature of storyline arcs, it emphasises the tangible physicality and sportsmanship exhibited by wrestlers, likening their labour to that of blue-collar workers. The concept of “kayfabe,” blurring the lines between reality and spectacle, adds layers of complexity to the performance. Through an examination of masculinity within wrestling, the paper highlights the reinforcement of hegemonic ideals and the portrayal of minority representations within the sport. Additionally, it delves into wrestling’s resonance with class structures and its role in shaping political discourse, particularly through the use of characters to frame geopolitical conflicts. Ultimately, this paper demonstrates that wrestling is fertile ground for cultural studies. It underscores wrestling’s reflection of broader cultural norms and its ability to provoke critical reflection on societal values. Through this exploration, it becomes evident that professional wrestling serves as more than mere entertainment but rather as a mirror reflecting the complexities of contemporary society.

Introduction 

Professional wrestling is not fake. The storylines may be fake, but the wrestling, sportsmanship, and athleticism among the wrestlers is very real. It has been said that wrestlers are no different than other workers insofar as they perform labour – possibly even in a purer form than others because it is through the use of their body (Moon, 2022). A wrestler can be likened to what Marx (1967) describes as “one who is bringing his own hide to market and has nothing to expect but a hiding.” Equating the work of wrestlers to the situation of common labourers, as one might in a Marxian/Marxist analysis of capitalism and employment, highlights the physical toll and precarious nature of their profession.

Almost every wrestling fan knows that the stories told in the ring are fake, but not all know the origins of this faux performance. This practice is rooted in the concept of “kayfabe.” Wrestlers who keep up kayfabe maintain their characters in public. It is not until they are in private that they drop the act. However, as kayfabe has been phased out of the profession, the fans can now be certain that it is fake. This allows for an added layer of complexity through which fans can interpret the sport. Storylines can be predicted based on what is “right” for the company to do. Many people do not understand this part, instead thinking that the wrestling world is pulling a fast one over on the fan base. Laine (2018) notes that “the issue of whether or not wrestling is fake is sociologically irrelevant compared to the issue of what being a wrestler means and what a wrestler does.”

Professional wrestling, a spectacle often dismissed as simple entertainment for the masses, can be said to embody a complex interplay of cultural narratives, power dynamics, and political agendas. In this examination, the paper will delve into the multifaceted world of professional wrestling, dissecting its portrayal of masculinity, its resonance with class structures, and its subtle yet significant political undercurrents. Drawing upon scholarly analyses and cultural observations, it will unravel the interplay between the sophisticated theatricality of the sport and its potential to perpetuate harmful stereotypes and ideologies. Wrestling is understudied in academia, and when it is studied, it is mostly studied within the context of whether or not it is real. There are so many unexplored areas that wrestling is applicable to, and as such, this paper attempts to lay a foundation for a deeper understanding of what those areas are. 

Just for Conservative Hillbillies? 

The professional wrestling audience is primarily male, working-class, and from the American South (Kyriakoudes and Coclanis, 1997). Indeed, as a well-off, well-educated white woman from a large city in the United States, many people are surprised to find out that I enjoy wrestling. Wrestling’s association with a “low-brow” southern culture is essential to its identity, and this is reflected in its story lines and their political subtext (Laine, 2018). However, this “low-brow” connotation, in my view, has led to wrestling being historically overlooked as an object of cultural study.

Based on viewership numbers, it is true that wrestling appeals most to those of lower education and lower income, but there has been an increase in the viewership of wrestling as an academic focus (Laine, 2018). There is lore and drama that can be observed and studied in the stories that are played out both inside and outside the ring. Southern conservative culture is highly relevant to the environment of professional wrestling. Southern athletes make up a disproportionate share of professional wrestlers (Kyriakoudes and Colcanis, 1997). The largest amount of viewership comes from southern households and lower income households, which again are primarily in the south (May, 1999). The concept of wrestling being a “family business” has its origins in southern families (Kyriakoudes and Colcanis, 1997). All of these factors combine to provide for a highly conservative fanbase.

At its peak in the late 1990s, professional wrestling gained the attention of 8% of US cable TV households (May, 1999). Monday Night RAW, the WWE Monday night program was one of the highest rated programs on cable TV. It is important to note that many of the viewers possess only a high school education or less and come from  lower income households. Conscious of its consumers, WWE relies on political status images that appeal to the conservative audience. Messages like “Hard work gets you far,” “Support the troops,” and “God and family come first” are displayed when certain wrestlers win or lose. It’s as if the audience is fighting against their opponents’ beliefs when they watch a non-conformist lose. Status politics “preserve, defend, or enhance the dominance and prestige of its own style of living within society” (May 1999). The messaging from WWE is distinctly conservative, as the “good guys” (baby faces or faces) are morally traditionalist while the “bad guys” (heels) are often more oriented towards modern values. A great example of this is Hulk Hogan, one of the most famous baby-faces or goodguys of the WWE franchise. His motto in the 1980s to young fans was to “eat your vitamins” and “say your prayers.” His respect for religious authority falls in line with conservative Americans’ religiosity. It’s as though WWE, through its wrestlers, is on a moral crusade.

The matches and storylines are used as outlets to battle the political and socio-economic enemies of traditional conservatism. The example of “Stone Cold” Steve Austin is relevant here. Despite being one of the most recognizable wrestlers from WWE’s golden age, he wouldn’t normally fall in line with what a conservative American would believe is traditional (May, 1999). He had a loud mouth, drank beer, and drove a dirty pickup truck into the ring (WWE, n.d.). His greatest heel, however, was the CEO of the company, Vince McMahon. Their rivalry was complicated, as McMahon wasn’t a “wrestler” as such, nor was he employed by the company in the same way. Instead, he represented something a lot of conservatives have disdain for (Boston, 2017). He wore expensive suits, drove fancy cars, and looked down on the ‘simpler’ lifestyle accredited to the blue-collar Stone Cold. If McMahon was losing a fight with Austin, it would be as if he’s getting screwed by the company. At the end of their feud, Austin ended up winning, providing the mostly blue-collar audience with their hero.

Furthermore, wrestling matches are community-based events (Migliore, 1993; Kyriakoudes and Colcanis, 1997). Whether from bigger corporate events or smaller wrestling circuits, collective effervescence from getting excited bonds people together (such as at a concert or church retreat). If conservative values, through thinly veiled narratives, are reinforced, it will be harder for individuals to develop political and moral values outside of that framework (Gabriel et al., 2019). When conservative values are portrayed positively and consistently, individuals who already align with these beliefs feel validated and may become more entrenched in their views. In addition, both ringside commentary and commentary made by wrestlers in the ring ensure the interpretation of a match is very narrow. One can’t expect promotions to believe that their audience does not understand what is happening in the ring. Simply put, they wish to control the outcome and understanding of the match as tightly as possible (Migliore, 1993). By watching the match and listening to the commentary, there is a double effect, as the audience is informed both visually and orally. This is especially interesting when one considers that former CEO Vince McMahon was a commentator for most of his career. Many people did not know until he broke kayfabe and made himself into a heel when he owned the company. The commentators are voices of authority and can suggest messaging even more than the wrestlers can because they are not physically fighting. This involvement of audience interpretation, and in some cases, participation is a much more intimate experience than other sports.

Because the wrestlers play off the audience’s reactions, the audience potentially has a say in what happens. It’s a collaboration; the audience provides a backdrop for the wrestlers, and as such, they are working as well (Moon, 2022). The spectators are an integral part of the performance and wrestling does not want passive onlookers (Mazer, 1990). If the promotions are catering to the conservative audience with conservative messaging, then it becomes like a massive socialisation cycle, and the beliefs keep getting regurgitated through different storylines and different wrestlers.

Americana and Its Enemies  

It is easy to underestimate the effect of wrestling on American politics. As noted in the 2016 election, Donald Trump and former CEO Vince McMahon are close friends. Some journalists even suggested that Trump developed some of his political ideas from wrestling – a story which is fabricated (Edison, 2017). The concept that Trump did take from wrestling, however, was the idea of kayfabe and working an audience (Roger, 2017). Politics has kayfabe all over it, but it has been said that “political kayfabe trades more on what is commonly known as lies” (Edison, 2017).

Perhaps the most notable example of politics bleeding into the wrestling world is the Iron Sheik. Introduced in 1972, he was portrayed as a racist caricature of Iranians and Arabs, representing a simplification of Middle Eastern identities. The Iron Sheik was one of the most hated heels throughout the history of the WWE franchise. He was a symbol for Americans to hate, a symbol of “irredeemable evil” (Foy, 2018). WWE told their version of the Persian Gulf crisis, the Iranian revolution, and the eventual beginning of the Iraq war through wrestling matches with the Iron Sheik and other supporting characters (Rahmani, 2007). The specific period when these storylines were prominent in WWE programming aligns with the years spanning from the late 1970s to the early 1990s, with the peak of the portrayal occurring during the height of tensions surrounding the Iranian revolution (1979), the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), and the Gulf War (1990-1991) (Rahmani, 2007).

Throughout this storyline, the fighting was framed as a binary choice between supporting American troops and President Bush or betraying your country. “It is impossible to convert events into storylines,” yet that’s what WWE was attempting to do (Foy 2018). It was no coincidence that just a day after President Bush denounced Iraq for setting fire to oil in Kuwait, WWE released a clip of Sergeant Slaughter and the Iron Sheik burning a photo of Hulk Hogan, the WWE’s chosen symbol of Americana (Rahmani, 2007). 

Many other storylines historically have placed “American enemies” in the ring with “American heroes.” Japanese wrestlers are given characters that are sneaky heels, like “ninjas” (Migliore, 1993). African American wrestlers have been placed in “savage warrior” characters (Migliore, 1993). After WWII, German wrestlers became the most hated heels in the business. During the Cold War, Russians became the new enemies. In 1990, there was a storyline between a tag team partnership where one reveals he is Lithuanian and wants to become an American, so he and his Russian partner become enemies (Rahmani, 2007). All these heels come from different cultures, often considered less or even non-American. They place the American as a good guy every time, solidifying an “innocence” that is not truly there (Foy, 2018). The blatant racism and xenophobia reinforce other aspects of conservative messaging from the company. 

Conclusion  

In the world of professional wrestling, reality and fiction intertwine in a mesmerising display of athleticism, theatrics, and cultural commentary. While the scripted storylines may create a facade of fantasy, the physical demands placed on the wrestlers and the genuine sportsmanship displayed in the ring are genuine. Wrestling, as described by some, mirrors the toil of blue-collar labourers, embodying a form of body labour where performers bring their own physicality to the forefront (Moon, 2022). The concept of “kayfabe,” rooted in the traditions of old carnival days, adds a layer of complexity to the wrestling narrative. Wrestlers, both in and out of the ring, often maintain their personas, blurring the lines between reality and performance. 

Masculinity, a central theme within wrestling, reflects the hegemonic ideals prized by American society. From the glamorization of violence to the perpetuation of traditional gender roles, wrestling serves as a microcosm of broader cultural norms. Minority representations of manhood in wrestling are often forced to conform to hegemonic standards or risk being relegated to villainous roles, reinforcing harmful stereotypes and attitudes. Beyond its portrayal of masculinity, wrestling intersects with class structures, attracting a predominantly working-class audience while retaining a cultural significance that transcends socioeconomic boundaries. The fusion of collective effervescence and conservative messaging fosters a sense of community among fans, yet it also reinforces political and moral values that may limit non-conforming perspectives. Wrestling, despite being seen primarily as entertainment, has the ability to shape or impact political discourse. The utilisation of characters like the Iron Sheik to frame geopolitical conflicts underscores wrestling’s continued relationship with the American political consciousness. As the layers of professional wrestling are peeled back, a complex tapestry of narratives emerges, revealing reflections and refractions of the intricacies of society. The lack of study of its political impact is a deficit in the study of the relationship of sport and politics. Wrestling, in all its spectacle and splendour, serves as a mirror to our cultural zeitgeist, inviting us to grapple with the realities it presents and the illusions it perpetuates. In the end, what remains undeniable is wrestling’s enduring impact on popular culture and its capacity to provoke reflection and discourse far beyond the confines of the ring.

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